Biography
Early life
Thomas Hobbes was born on 5 April 1588 (Old Style), in Westport, now
part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England. Having been born prematurely
when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada,
Hobbes later reported that "my mother gave birth to twins: myself and
fear."[8] Hobbes had a brother, Edmund, about two years older, as well
as a sister, Anne.
Although Thomas Hobbes's childhood is unknown to a large extent, as is
his mother's name,[9] it is known that Hobbes's father, Thomas Sr., was
the vicar of both Charlton and Westport. Hobbes's father was
uneducated, according to John Aubrey, Hobbes's biographer, and he
"disesteemed learning."[10] Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the
local clergy outside his church, forcing him to leave London. As a
result, the family was left in the care of Thomas Sr.'s older brother,
Francis, a wealthy glove manufacturer with no family of his own.
Education
Hobbes Jr. was educated at Westport church from age four, passed to the
Malmesbury school, and then to a private school kept by a young man
named Robert Latimer, a graduate of the University of Oxford.[11]
Hobbes was a good pupil, and between 1601 and 1602 he went up to
Magdalen Hall, the predecessor to Hertford College, Oxford, where he
was taught scholastic logic and mathematics.[12][13][14] The principal,
John Wilkinson, was a Puritan and had some influence on Hobbes. Before
going up to Oxford, Hobbes translated Euripides' Medea from Greek into
Latin verse.[10]
At university, Thomas Hobbes appears to have followed his own
curriculum as he was little attracted by the scholastic learning.[11]
Leaving Oxford, Hobbes completed his B.A. degree by incorporation at St
John's College, Cambridge, in 1608.[15] He was recommended by Sir James
Hussey, his master at Magdalen, as tutor to William, the son of William
Cavendish,[11] Baron of Hardwick (and later Earl of Devonshire), and
began a lifelong connection with that family.[16] William Cavendish was
elevated to the peerage on his father's death in 1626, holding it for
two years before his death in 1628. His son, also William, likewise
became the 3rd Earl of Devonshire. Hobbes served as a tutor and
secretary to both men. The 1st Earl's younger brother, Charles
Cavendish, had two sons who were patrons of Hobbes. The elder son,
William Cavendish, later 1st Duke of Newcastle, was a leading supporter
of Charles I during the civil war personally financing an army for the
king, having been governor to the Prince of Wales, Charles James, Duke
of Cornwall. It was to this William Cavendish that Hobbes dedicated his
Elements of Law.[10]
Hobbes became a companion to the younger William Cavendish and they
both took part in a grand tour of Europe between 1610 and 1615. Hobbes
was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the
tour, in contrast to the scholastic philosophy that he had learned in
Oxford. In Venice, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio Micanzio,
an associate of Paolo Sarpi, a Venetian scholar and statesman.[10]
His scholarly efforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of
classic Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in 1628, his
great translation of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War,[11]
the first translation of that work into English from a Greek
manuscript. It has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620
publication known as Horae Subsecivae: Observations and Discourses also
represent the work of Hobbes from this period.[17]
Although he did associate with literary figures like Ben Jonson and
briefly worked as Francis Bacon's amanuensis, translating several of
his Essays into Latin,[10] he did not extend his efforts into
philosophy until after 1629. In June 1628, his employer Cavendish, then
the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague, and his widow, the countess
Christian, dismissed Hobbes.[18][19]
In Paris (1629–1637)
Hobbes soon (in 1629) found work as a tutor to Gervase Clifton, the son
of Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet, mostly spent in Paris, until
November 1630.[20] Thereafter, he again found work with the Cavendish
family, tutoring William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, the eldest
son of his previous pupil. Over the next seven years, as well as
tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awakening in him
curiosity over key philosophic debates. He visited Galileo Galilei in
Florence while he was under house arrest upon condemnation, in 1636,
and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held
together by Marin Mersenne.[18]
Hobbes's first area of study was an interest in the physical doctrine
of motion and physical momentum. Despite his interest in this
phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics. He went on to
conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would
devote his life. His scheme was first to work out, in a separate
treatise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how physical phenomena
were universally explicable in terms of motion, at least as motion or
mechanical action was then understood. He then singled out Man from the
realm of Nature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showed what
specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar
phenomena of sensation, knowledge, affections and passions whereby Man
came into relation with Man. Finally, he considered, in his crowning
treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this
must be regulated if people were not to fall back into "brutishness and
misery". Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man,
and the State.[18]
In England (1637–1641)
Hobbes came back home from Paris, in 1637, to a country riven with
discontent, which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his
philosophic plan.[18] However, by the end of the Short Parliament in
1640, he had written a short treatise called The Elements of Law,
Natural and Politic. It was not published and only circulated as a
manuscript among his acquaintances. A pirated version, however, was
published about ten years later. Although it seems that much of The
Elements of Law was composed before the sitting of the Short
Parliament, there are polemical pieces of the work that clearly mark
the influences of the rising political crisis. Nevertheless, many
(though not all) elements of Hobbes's political thought were unchanged
between The Elements of Law and Leviathan, which demonstrates that the
events of the English Civil War had little effect on his contractarian
methodology. However, the arguments in Leviathan were modified from The
Elements of Law when it came to the necessity of consent in creating
political obligation: Hobbes wrote in The Elements of Law that
Patrimonial kingdoms were not necessarily formed by the consent of the
governed, while in Leviathan he argued that they were. This was perhaps
a reflection either of Hobbes's thoughts about the engagement
controversy or of his reaction to treatises published by
Patriarchalists, such as Sir Robert Filmer, between 1640 and
1651.[citation needed]
When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes
felt that he was in disfavour due to the circulation of his treatise
and fled to Paris. He did not return for 11 years. In Paris, he
rejoined the coterie around Mersenne and wrote a critique of the
Meditations on First Philosophy of Descartes, which was printed as
third among the sets of "Objections" appended, with "Replies" from
Descartes, in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by
Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the
two.[21]
Hobbes also extended his own works in a way, working on the third
section, De Cive, which was finished in November 1641. Although it was
initially only circulated privately, it was well received, and included
lines of argumentation that were repeated a decade later in Leviathan.
He then returned to hard work on the first two sections of his work and
published little except a short treatise on optics (Tractatus opticus),
included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne
as Cogitata physico-mathematica in 1644. He built a good reputation in
philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen with Descartes, Gilles de
Roberval and others to referee the controversy between John Pell and
Longomontanus over the problem of squaring the circle.[21]
Civil War Period (1642–1651)
The English Civil War began in 1642, and when the royalist cause began
to decline in mid-1644, many royalists came to Paris and were known to
Hobbes.[21] This revitalised Hobbes's political interests, and the De
Cive was republished and more widely distributed. The printing began in
1646 by Samuel de Sorbiere through the Elsevier press in Amsterdam with
a new preface and some new notes in reply to objections.[21]
In 1647, Hobbes took up a position as mathematical instructor to the
young Charles, Prince of Wales, who had come to Paris from Jersey
around July. This engagement lasted until 1648 when Charles went to
Holland.[21]

Frontispiece from De Cive (1642)
The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to produce Leviathan,
which set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the
political crisis resulting from the war. Hobbes compared the State to a
monster (leviathan) composed of men, created under pressure of human
needs and dissolved by civil strife due to human passions. The work
closed with a general "Review and Conclusion", in response to the war,
which answered the question: Does a subject have the right to change
allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect is irrevocably
lost?[21]
During the years of composing Leviathan, Hobbes remained in or near
Paris. In 1647, he suffered a near-fatal illness that disabled him for
six months.[21] On recovering, he resumed his literary task and
completed it by 1650. Meanwhile, a translation of De Cive was being
produced; scholars disagree about whether it was Hobbes who translated
it.[22]
In 1650, a pirated edition of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic
was published.[23] It was divided into two small volumes: Human Nature,
or the Fundamental Elements of Policie; and De corpore politico, or the
Elements of Law, Moral and Politick.[22]
In 1651, the translation of De Cive was published under the title
Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society.[24] Also,
the printing of the greater work proceeded, and finally appeared in
mid-1651, titled Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common
Wealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. It had a famous title-page engraving
depicting a crowned giant above the waist towering above hills
overlooking a landscape, holding a sword and a crozier and made up of
tiny human figures. The work had immediate impact.[22] Soon, Hobbes was
more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time.[22] The
first effect of its publication was to sever his link with the exiled
royalists, who might well have killed him.[22] The secularist spirit of
his book greatly angered both Anglicans and French Catholics.[22]
Hobbes appealed to the revolutionary English government for protection
and fled back to London in winter 1651.[22] After his submission to the
Council of State, he was allowed to subside into private life[22] in
Fetter Lane.[citation needed]
Later life

Thomas Hobbes. Line engraving by William Faithorne, 1668
In 1658, Hobbes published the final section of his philosophical
system, completing the scheme he had planned more than 20 years before.
De Homine consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision.
The remainder of the treatise dealt cursorily with some of the topics
more fully treated in the Human Nature and the Leviathan. In addition
to publishing some controversial writings on mathematics, including
disciplines like geometry, Hobbes also continued to produce
philosophical works.[22]
From the time of the Restoration, he acquired a new prominence;
"Hobbism" became a byword for all that respectable society ought to
denounce. The young king, Hobbes's former pupil, now Charles II,
remembered Hobbes and called him to the court to grant him a pension of
£100.[25]
The king was important in protecting Hobbes when, in 1666, the House of
Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profaneness. That same
year, on 17 October 1666, it was ordered that the committee to which
the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive information
touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness... in
particular... the book of Mr. Hobbes called the Leviathan."[26] Hobbes
was terrified at the prospect of being labelled a heretic, and
proceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. At the same time, he
examined the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his
investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added as an
Appendix to his Latin translation of Leviathan, published in Amsterdam
in 1668. In this appendix, Hobbes aimed to show that, since the High
Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of
heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that nothing could be
heresy except opposing the Nicene Creed, which, he maintained,
Leviathan did not do.[27]
The only consequence that came of the bill was that Hobbes could never
thereafter publish anything in England on subjects relating to human
conduct. The 1668 edition of his works was printed in Amsterdam because
he could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication in
England. Other writings were not made public until after his death,
including Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of
England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on
from the year 1640 to the year 1662. For some time, Hobbes was not even
allowed to respond, whatever his enemies tried. Despite this, his
reputation abroad was formidable.[27]
Hobbes spent the last four or five years of his life with his patron,
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, at the family's Chatsworth
House estate. He had been a friend of the family since 1608 when he
first tutored an earlier William Cavendish.[28] After Hobbes's death,
many of his manuscripts would be found at Chatsworth House.[29]
His final works were an autobiography in Latin verse in 1672, and a
translation of four books of the Odyssey into "rugged" English rhymes
that in 1673 led to a complete translation of both Iliad and Odyssey in
1675.[27]
Death

Tomb of Thomas Hobbes in St John the Baptist's Church, Ault Hucknall,
in Derbyshire
In October 1679 Hobbes suffered a bladder disorder, and then a
paralytic stroke, from which he died on 4 December 1679, aged
91,[27][30] at Hardwick Hall, owned by the Cavendish family.[29]
His last words were said to have been "A great leap in the dark",
uttered in his final conscious moments.[31] His body was interred in St
John the Baptist's Church, Ault Hucknall, in Derbyshire.[32]
|
略歴
生い立ち
トマス・ホッブズは1588年4月5日(旧暦)、イングランドのウェストポート(現在はウィルトシャーのマルムズベリーの一部)で生まれた。スペイン艦隊
の侵攻を知った母親が早産したため、ホッブズは後に「私の母は双子を産んだ:私と恐怖を」[8]と報告している。
トマス・ホッブズの幼少期は母親の名前と同様に不明な点が多いが[9]、ホッブズの父トマス・シニアがチャールトンとウェストポートの牧師であったことは
知られている。ホッブズの伝記作家ジョン・オーブリーによれば、ホッブズの父親は無学で、「学問を軽んじていた」[10]。その結果、一家はトーマス・シ
ニアの兄で裕福な手袋製造業者のフランシスに預けられることになり、フランシスは自分の家族を持たなかった。
教育
ホッブズ・ジュニアは4歳からウェストポート教会で教育を受け、マルムズベリー校を経て、オックスフォード大学を卒業したロバート・ラティマーという青年
が経営する私塾に通った[11]。
[校長のジョン・ウィルキンソンはピューリタンで、ホッブズに影響を与えた。オックスフォードに上がる前、ホッブズはエウリピデスの『メデア』をギリシャ
語からラテン語に訳した[10]。
大学では、トマス・ホッブズは自分自身のカリキュラムに従ったようで、スコラ学にはほとんど魅力を感じなかった[11]。オックスフォードを去ったホッブ
ズは、1608年にケンブリッジのセント・ジョンズ・カレッジで編入学により学士号を取得。
[15]マグダレン校での師であったジェームズ・ハッセー卿の推薦で、ハードウィック男爵(後のデヴォンシャー伯爵)ウィリアム・キャヴェンディッシュ
[11]の息子ウィリアムの家庭教師となり、同家との生涯のつながりが始まった[16]。息子のウィリアムも同様に第3代デヴォンシャー伯爵となった。
ホッブズは二人の家庭教師や秘書を務めた。第1伯爵の弟チャールズ・キャベンディッシュには、ホッブズの後援者であった2人の息子がいた。長男のウィリア
ム・キャヴェンディッシュ(後の第1代ニューカッスル公)は、内戦中、チャールズ1世の有力な支持者であり、コーンウォール公チャールズ・ジェームス・
ウェールズ皇太子の知事として、国王のために自ら軍に資金を提供した。ホッブズが『法の要素』[10]を献呈したのは、このウィリアム・キャヴェンディッ
シュであった。
ホッブズは若きウィリアム・キャヴェンディッシュの伴侶となり、二人は1610年から1615年にかけてのヨーロッパ大旅行に参加した。ホッブズはこの旅
行で、オックスフォードで学んだスコラ哲学とは対照的に、ヨーロッパの科学的・批判的手法に触れた。ヴェネツィアでは、ホッブズはヴェネツィアの学者であ
り政治家であったパオロ・サルピの同僚であったフルゲンツィオ・ミカンツィオと知り合いになった[10]。
当時のホッブズの学術的な努力は、古典的なギリシア語やラテン語の著者の入念な研究を目的としたものであり、その成果として1628年にトゥキュディデス
の『ペロポネソス戦争史』を大々的に翻訳した[11]。Horae Subsecivae: Observations and
Discourses』として知られる1620年の出版物に収録された3つの言説も、この時期のホッブズの著作であると論じられている[17]。
ホッブズはベン・ジョンソンのような文学者と交際し、短期間フランシス・ベーコンの助手として彼の『エッセイ』のいくつかをラテン語に翻訳していたが
[10]、1629年以降になるまで哲学の分野に力を入れることはなかった。1628年6月、当時デヴォンシャー伯爵であった雇い主のキャヴェンディッ
シュがペストで亡くなり、未亡人のクリスチャン伯爵夫人はホッブズを解雇した[18][19]。
パリにて(1629年-1637年)
ホッブズは間もなく(1629年)、第1男爵サー・ゲルヴェーズ・クリフトンの息子であるゲルヴェーズ・クリフトンの家庭教師の仕事を見つけ、1630年
11月まで主にパリで過ごした[20]。その後7年間、家庭教師と並行して哲学の知識を深め、重要な哲学論争に対する好奇心を目覚めさせた。1636年に
は、ガリレオ・ガリレイが断罪されて軟禁されている間にフィレンツェを訪れ、その後、マリン・メルセンヌが主催するパリの哲学グループの常連討論者となっ
た[18]。
ホッブズの最初の研究分野は、運動と物理的運動量に関する物理学的教義への関心であった。この現象への関心にもかかわらず、彼は物理学のような実験的作業
を軽んじた。その後、ホッブズは生涯を捧げることになる思想体系を構想した。彼の構想は、まず別個の論文で、身体に関する体系的な教義を構築し、物理現象
がいかに普遍的に、少なくとも当時理解されていた運動や機械的作用の観点から説明可能であるかを示すことだった。そして、自然や植物の領域から人間を除外
した。そして別の論考で、感覚、知識、感情、情念といった、人間と人間との関係において特有の現象を生み出すのに、具体的にどのような身体運動が関わって
いるかを示した。そして最後に、彼はその頂点に立つ論文で、人間がどのように社会に入るように動かされるかを考察し、人々が「残忍さと悲惨さ」に逆戻りし
ないためには、これをどのように規制しなければならないかを論じた。こうして彼は、身体、人間、国家という別々の現象を統合することを提案した[18]。
イギリスにて(1637年-1641年)
1637年、パリから帰国したホッブズは、不平不満に苛まれるイギリスを目の当たりにし、彼の哲学的計画の秩序ある実行を妨げることになった[18]。し
かし、1640年の短期議会が終わるまでに、彼は『自然法および政治法の要素』という短い論文を書き上げていた。これは出版されず、彼の知人の間で手稿と
して流通しただけであった。しかし、約10年後に海賊版が出版された。法の要素』の大部分は、短命議会が開かれる前に書かれたと思われるが、政治的危機の
高まりの影響をはっきりと示す極論的な部分もある。とはいえ、ホッブズの政治思想の多くの要素(すべてではないが)は、『法の要素』と『リヴァイアサン』
の間で変わっておらず、イギリス内戦の出来事がホッブズの契約論的方法論にほとんど影響を与えなかったことを示している。しかし、『リヴァイアサン』にお
ける議論は、政治的義務の発生における同意の必要性に関しては、『法の要素』から変更されている:
ホッブズは『法の要素』の中で、愛国王国は必ずしも被支配者の同意によって形成されるものではないと書いたが、『リヴァイアサン』の中では同意によって形
成されると主張した。これはおそらく、婚約論争に対するホッブズの考え、あるいは1640年から1651年にかけてサー・ロバート・フィルマーなどの家父
長制論者が出版した論考に対するホッブズの反応のいずれかを反映したものであった[要出典]。
1640年11月、長議会が短議会を引き継ぐと、ホッブズは彼の論考の流通によって不利な立場に立たされたと感じ、パリに逃亡した。ホッブズは11年間帰
らなかった。パリでは、メルセンヌ周辺の同人たちに再び加わり、デカルトの『第一哲学瞑想録』に対する批評を書いた。この批評は、デカルトの「反論」とと
もに1641年に印刷された。デカルトの他の著作に対する別の論考は、二人の間のやりとりをすべて終わらせることに成功した[21]。
ホッブズはまた、自身の著作をある意味で拡張し、1641年11月に完成した第三部『デ・シーヴ』に取り組んだ。当初は内々にしか配布されなかったが、好
評を博し、10年後の『リヴァイアサン』で繰り返される論旨が含まれていた。1644年にメルセンヌが『Cogitata
physico-mathematica』として出版した科学論文集に収録された光学に関する短い論考(Tractatus
opticus)以外はほとんど出版しなかった。1645年には、デカルト、ジル・ド・ロベルヴァルらとともに、円の二乗の問題をめぐるジョン・ペルとロ
ンゴモンタヌスの論争の審判に選ばれた[21]。
内戦期 (1642-1651)
1642年にイングランド内戦が始まり、1644年半ばに王党派が衰退し始めると、多くの王党派がパリを訪れ、ホッブズの知るところとなった[21]。印
刷は1646年にサミュエル・ド・ソルビエールによってアムステルダムのエルゼヴィア印刷所を通じて開始され、新しい序文と反論に対するいくつかの新しい
注釈が加えられた[21]。
1647年、ホッブズは、7月頃にジャージー島からパリにやってきた若きチャールズ皇太子の数学指導教官の職に就いた。この職はチャールズがオランダに渡
る1648年まで続いた[21]。

『デ・シーヴ』(1642年)の扉絵
追放された王党派の仲間たちによって、ホッブズは『リヴァイアサン』を著すことになる。ホッブズは国家を人間からなる怪物(リヴァイアサン)になぞらえ、
人間の必要性に迫られて創造され、人間の情念による内紛によって解消されるとした。この作品は、戦争に対応した「総説と結論」で幕を閉じ、次の問いに答え
ている: 臣民は、かつての主権者の保護する力が回復不能なまでに失われたとき、忠誠を変更する権利を有するのか?
リヴァイアサン』の執筆期間中、ホッブズはパリかパリ近郊に滞在していた。1647年、ホッブズは瀕死の重傷を負い、6ヶ月間動けなくなったが[21]、
回復してからは執筆を再開し、1650年までに完成させた。その間、『デ・シーヴ』の翻訳が作られていたが、それを翻訳したのがホッブズであったかどうか
については学者の間でも意見が分かれている[22]。
1650年、『自然法および政治法の要素』の海賊版が出版された[23]:
人間の本性、あるいは政治の基本的要素』と『政治的身体、あるいは道徳的、政治的な法の要素』である[22]。
1651年、『デ・シーヴ』の翻訳が『政府と社会に関する哲学的初歩』というタイトルで出版された[24]。また、より大きな著作の印刷が進められ、最終
的に1651年半ばに『リヴァイアサン』(Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a
Common Wealth, Ecclesiastical and
Civil)というタイトルで出版された。有名なタイトルページのエングレーヴィングには、風景を見下ろす丘の上にそびえ立つ腰より上の王冠をかぶった巨
人が、剣と矛を持ち、小さな人影で構成されている様子が描かれていた。ホッブズの著作の世俗主義的な精神は、英国国教会とフランスのカトリック教徒の双方
を大いに怒らせた。 [22]ホッブズは革命的なイギリス政府に保護を求め、1651年の冬にロンドンに逃げ帰った[22]。
その後の人生

トマス・ホッブズ ウィリアム・フェイスーンによる線刻画、1668年
1658年、ホッブズは哲学体系の最終章を発表し、20年以上前に計画していた計画を完成させた。De
Homine』の大部分は、精巧な視覚論で構成されていた。残りの部分は、『人間本性』や『リヴァイアサン』でより詳細に扱われているいくつかのテーマに
ついて、ざっと扱ったものであった。幾何学のような学問を含む数学に関するいくつかの論議を呼ぶ著作を発表することに加えて、ホッブズは哲学的著作も発表
し続けた[22]。
王政復古の頃から、ホッブズは新たな脚光を浴びるようになり、「ホッブズ主義」は立派な社会が糾弾すべきすべてのものの代名詞となった。ホッブズのかつて
の弟子であった若き国王チャールズ2世は、ホッブズを覚えており、宮廷に呼んで100ポンドの年金を与えた[25]。
1666年、下院が無神論と不敬罪に反対する法案を提出したとき、国王はホッブズを保護するために重要な役割を果たした。同年、1666年10月17日、
法案が付託された委員会は、「無神論、冒涜、不敬につながるような書物...特に...『リヴァイアサン』と呼ばれるホッブズ氏の書物...に関する情報
を受け取る権限を与えられるべきである」[26]と命じられた。同時に、彼は異端法の実態を調査した。調査の結果は、1668年にアムステルダムで出版さ
れた『リヴァイアサン』のラテン語訳の付録として加えられた3つの短い対話篇で初めて発表された。この付録の中でホッブズは、高等法院が廃止された以上、
自分が従順とする異端法廷がまったく残っていないこと、ニカイア信条に反対すること以外は異端となりえないこと、そしてリヴァイアサンはそれを行っていな
いと主張したことを示すことを目的とした[27]。
この法案によってもたらされた唯一の結果は、ホッブズが以後イングランドで人間の行為に関する題材を出版することができなくなったことであった。彼の著作
の1668年版はアムステルダムで印刷されたが、それはイングランドで出版するための検閲官の許可を得ることができなかったからである。1640年から
1662年にかけてのイングランドの内戦の原因や、内戦を遂行するための助言と策略の歴史』(Behemoth: the History of
the Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and
Artifices by the carried carried on the year 1640 to the year
1662)など、他の著作は彼の死後まで公開されなかった。ホッブズはしばらくの間、敵が何を試みても反論することさえ許されなかった。にもかかわらず、
彼の海外での評判はすこぶる高かった[27]。
ホッブズは人生の最後の4、5年を、彼のパトロンであったデヴォンシャー公爵ウィリアム・キャヴェンディッシュとともに、同家のチャッツワース・ハウスで
過ごした。ホッブズの死後、彼の手稿の多くはチャッツワース・ハウスで発見されることになる[29]。
彼の最後の作品は、1672年のラテン語詩による自伝と、1673年に『オデュッセイア』4巻を「荒々しい」英語韻文に翻訳したもので、1675年には
『イーリアス』と『オデュッセイア』の全訳につながった[27]。
死

ダービーシャー州オルト・ハックノールの洗礼者ヨハネ教会にあるトマス・ホッブズの墓
1679年10月、ホッブズは膀胱を患い、その後麻痺性脳卒中を起こし、1679年12月4日、キャヴェンディッシュ家が所有するハードウィック・ホール
で91歳で死去した[27][30]。
彼の最期の言葉は「暗闇の中での大跳躍」であったと言われており、最後の意識の瞬間に発せられたものであった[31]。
彼の遺体はダービーシャーのオルト・ハックノールの洗礼者聖ヨハネ教会に埋葬された[32]。
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Political theory
Hobbes, influenced by contemporary scientific ideas, had intended for
his political theory to be a quasi-geometrical system, in which the
conclusions followed inevitably from the premises.[10] The main
practical conclusion of Hobbes's political theory is that state or
society cannot be secure unless at the disposal of an absolute
sovereign. From this follows the view that no individual can hold
rights of property against the sovereign, and that the sovereign may
therefore take the goods of its subjects without their consent. This
particular view owes its significance to it being first developed in
the 1630s when Charles I had sought to raise revenues without the
consent of Parliament, and therefore of his subjects.[10] Hobbes
rejected one of the most famous theses of Aristotle's politics, namely
that human beings are naturally suited to life in a polis and do not
fully realize their natures until they exercise the role of citizen.[33]
Leviathan
Main article: Leviathan (Hobbes book)

Frontispiece of Leviathan
In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states
and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of
morality.[34] Much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the
necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord
and civil war.
Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and their
passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government,
a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each
person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world.
This, Hobbes argues, would lead to a "war of all against all" (bellum
omnium contra omnes). The description contains what has been called one
of the best-known passages in English philosophy, which describes the
natural state humankind would be in, were it not for political
community:[35]
In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit
thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no
navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no
commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such
things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no
account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of
all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man,
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.[36]
In such states, people fear death and lack both the things necessary to
commodious living, and the hope of being able to obtain them. So, in
order to avoid it, people accede to a social contract and establish a
civil society. According to Hobbes, society is a population and a
sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede some
right[37] for the sake of protection. Power exercised by this authority
cannot be resisted, because the protector's sovereign power derives
from individuals' surrendering their own sovereign power for
protection. The individuals are thereby the authors of all decisions
made by the sovereign,[38] "he that complaineth of injury from his
sovereign complaineth that whereof he himself is the author, and
therefore ought not to accuse any man but himself, no nor himself of
injury because to do injury to one's self is impossible". There is no
doctrine of separation of powers in Hobbes's discussion.[39][40]
According to Hobbes, the sovereign must control civil, military,
judicial and ecclesiastical powers, even the words.[41]
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政治理論
ホッブズは現代の科学思想の影響を受け、彼の政治理論を準幾何学的な体系とすることを意図していた。このことから、いかなる個人も君主に対して財産権を保
持することはできず、それゆえ君主は臣民の同意なしに臣民の財物を奪うことができるという見解が導かれる。ホッブズは、アリストテレスの政治学の最も有名
なテーゼの一つである、人間は生まれながらにしてポリスでの生活に適しており、市民としての役割を果たすまではその本性を十分に発揮することができないと
いうテーゼを否定した[33]。
リヴァイアサン

主な記事 リヴァイアサンリヴァイアサン』扉絵
ホッブズは『リヴァイアサン』の中で、国家と合法的な政府の基礎と道徳の客観的な科学を創造するという教義を示した[34]。本書の大部分は、不和と内戦
の弊害を避けるために強力な中央権力の必要性を示すことで占められている。
ホッブズは、人間とその情念についての機械論的な理解から出発し、政府がなければどのような生活になるかを仮定する。そのような状態では、各人が世の中の
あらゆるものに対する権利、つまりライセンスを持つことになる。これは「万人の万人に対する戦争」(bellum omnium contra
omnes)につながるとホッブズは主張する。この記述には、政治的共同体がなければ人類が置かれるであろう自然な状態を描写した、イギリス哲学において
最もよく知られた一節と呼ばれるものが含まれている[35]。
このような状態では、産業の場はなく、その果実は不確実であるため、その結果、大地の文化もなく、航海も、海路で輸入できる商品の使用もなく、便利な建物
もなく、大きな力を必要とするようなものを移動させたり、取り除いたりする道具もなく、地球の表面に関する知識もなく、時間の計算もなく、芸術もなく、文
字もなく、社会もなく、そして何よりも最悪なのは、絶え間ない恐怖と、激しい死の危険であり、人間の生活は、孤独で、貧しく、厄介で、残忍で、短い
[36]。
このような状態では、人々は死を恐れ、日常に必要なものも、それを手に入れられるという希望もない。そこで、人々は死を回避するために、社会契約に同意
し、市民社会を設立する。ホッブズによれば、社会とは人口であり、その社会に属するすべての個人が保護のために何らかの権利[37]を譲り渡す主権者であ
る。保護者の主権的権力は、個人が保護のために自らの主権的権力を放棄することに由来するため、この権力によって行使される権力に抵抗することはできな
い。それによって、個人は主権者によってなされたすべての決定の作成者であり[38]、「自分の主権者から傷害を受けたと訴える者は、自分自身が作成者で
あることを訴えるのであり、したがって、自分以外のいかなる者をも、いや、自分自身に傷害を加えることは不可能であるため、傷害を受けた自分自身をも非難
すべきではない」のである。ホッブズの議論には三権分立の教義はない[39][40]。ホッブズによれば、主権者は市民的権力、軍事的権力、司法的権力、
教会的権力、さらには言葉をも統制しなければならない[41]。
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Religious views
The religious opinions of Hobbes remain controversial as many positions
have been attributed to him and range from atheism to Orthodox
Christianity. In the Elements of Law, Hobbes provided a cosmological
argument for the existence of God, saying that God is "the first cause
of all causes".[45]
Hobbes was accused of atheism by several contemporaries; Bramhall
accused him of teachings that could lead to atheism. This was an
important accusation, and Hobbes himself wrote, in his answer to
Bramhall's The Catching of Leviathan, that "atheism, impiety, and the
like are words of the greatest defamation possible".[46] Hobbes always
defended himself from such accusations.[47] In more recent times also,
much has been made of his religious views by scholars such as Richard
Tuck and J. G. A. Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement
about the exact significance of Hobbes's unusual views on religion.
As Martinich has pointed out, in Hobbes's time the term "atheist" was
often applied to people who believed in God but not in divine
providence, or to people who believed in God but also maintained other
beliefs that were considered to be inconsistent with such belief or
judged incompatible with orthodox Christianity. He says that this "sort
of discrepancy has led to many errors in determining who was an atheist
in the early modern period".[48] In this extended early modern sense of
atheism, Hobbes did take positions that strongly disagreed with church
teachings of his time. For example, he argued repeatedly that there are
no incorporeal substances, and that all things, including human
thoughts, and even God, heaven, and hell are corporeal, matter in
motion. He argued that "though Scripture acknowledge spirits, yet doth
it nowhere say, that they are incorporeal, meaning thereby without
dimensions and quantity".[49] (In this view, Hobbes claimed to be
following Tertullian.) Like John Locke, he also stated that true
revelation can never disagree with human reason and experience,[50]
although he also argued that people should accept revelation and its
interpretations for the reason that they should accept the commands of
their sovereign, in order to avoid war.
While in Venice on tour, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio
Micanzio, a close associate of Paolo Sarpi, who had written against the
pretensions of the papacy to temporal power in response to the
Interdict of Pope Paul V against Venice, which refused to recognise
papal prerogatives. James I had invited both men to England in 1612.
Micanzio and Sarpi had argued that God willed human nature, and that
human nature indicated the autonomy of the state in temporal affairs.
When he returned to England in 1615, William Cavendish maintained
correspondence with Micanzio and Sarpi, and Hobbes translated the
latter's letters from Italian, which were circulated among the Duke's
circle.[10]
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宗教的見解
ホッブズの宗教的見解については、無神論から正統派キリスト教まで多くの立場があり、論争が続いている。ホッブズは『法の要素』の中で、神は「すべての原
因の第一原因」であるとし、神の存在を宇宙論的に論証した[45]。
ホッブズは同時代の何人かの人物から無神論者として非難され、ブラムホールは無神論につながりかねない教えを説いていると非難した。これは重要な告発であ
り、ホッブズ自身もブラムホールの『リヴァイアサンの捕縛』への回答の中で、「無神論、不敬、その他は可能な限り最大の中傷の言葉である」と書いている
[46]。
[47]最近では、リチャード・タックやJ.G.A.ポコックのような学者によって、ホッブズの宗教的見解が多く取り上げられるようになったが、ホッブズ
の宗教に対する特異な見解の正確な意義については、いまだに意見が分かれている。
マーティニッチが指摘しているように、ホッブズの時代には、「無神論者」という言葉は、神を信じるが神の摂理は信じない人々、あるいは、神を信じるが、そ
のような信仰とは矛盾すると考えられる、あるいは正統的キリスト教とは相容れないと判断される他の信仰も維持する人々にしばしば適用されていた。このよう
な「齟齬が、近世において誰が無神論者であったかを決定する際に多くの誤りを招いた」と彼は言う[48]。このように拡大された近世の無神論という意味に
おいて、ホッブズは当時の教会の教えに強く反対する立場をとっていた。例えば、彼は無体物質は存在せず、人間の思考、さらには神、天国、地獄を含むすべて
のものは有体物であり、運動する物質であると繰り返し主張した。この見解において、ホッブズはテルトゥリアヌスに倣っていると主張していた。)ジョン・
ロックと同様に、彼はまた、真の啓示は人間の理性や経験と決して一致しないと述べていたが[50]、戦争を避けるために、人々は主権者の命令を受け入れる
べきであるという理由から、啓示とその解釈を受け入れるべきであるとも主張していた。
彼は教皇パウロ5世が教皇の特権を認めなかったヴェネツィアに対する勅令を受けて、教皇庁の権勢に反対する著作を残していた。ジェームズ1世は1612
年、二人をイングランドに招いた。ミカンツィオとサルピは、人間の本性は神の意志に基づくものであり、人間の本性は時間的問題における国家の自律性を示す
ものであると主張していた。1615年にイギリスに戻ったウィリアム・キャヴェンディッシュは、ミカンツィオやサルピと文通を続け、ホッブズはサルピのイ
タリア語の手紙を翻訳し、公爵家の間で回覧した[10]。
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Works
1602. Latin translation of Euripides' Medea (lost).
1620. "A Discourse of Tacitus", "A Discourse of Rome", and "A Discourse
of Laws." In The Horae Subsecivae: Observation and Discourses.[51]
1626. "De Mirabilis Pecci, Being the Wonders of the Peak in
Darby-shire" (publ. 1636) – a poem on the Seven Wonders of the Peak
1629. Eight Books of the Peloponnese Warre, translation with an
Introduction of Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War
1630. A Short Tract on First Principles.[52][53]
Authorship doubtful, as this work is attributed by important critics to
Robert Payne.[54]
1637. A Briefe of the Art of Rhetorique[55]
Molesworth edition title: The Whole Art of Rhetoric.
Authorship probable: While Schuhmann (1998) firmly rejects the
attribution of this work to Hobbes,[56] a preponderance of scholarship
disagrees with Schuhmann's idiosyncratic assessment. Schuhmann
disagrees with historian Quentin Skinner, who would come to agree with
Schuhmann.[57][58]
1639. Tractatus opticus II (also known as Latin Optical
Manuscript)[59][60]
1640. Elements of Law, Natural and Politic
Initially circulated only in handwritten copies; without Hobbes's
permission, the first printed edition would be in 1650.
1641. Objectiones ad Cartesii Meditationes de Prima Philosophia 3rd
series of Objections
1642. Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Tertia de Cive (Latin, 1st
limited ed.).
1643. De Motu, Loco et Tempore[61]
First edition (1973) with the title: Thomas White's De Mundo Examined
1644. Part of the "Praefatio to Mersenni Ballistica." In F. Marini
Mersenni minimi Cogitata physico-mathematica. In quibus tam naturae
quàm artis effectus admirandi certissimis demonstrationibus explicantur.
1644. "Opticae, liber septimus" (also known as Tractatus opticus I
written in 1640). In Universae geometriae mixtaeque mathematicae
synopsis, edited by Marin Mersenne.
Molesworth edition (OL V, pp. 215–248) title: "Tractatus Opticus"
1646. A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques[62]
Molesworth published only the dedication to Cavendish and the
conclusion in EW VII, pp. 467–471.
1646. Of Liberty and Necessity (publ. 1654)
Published without the permission of Hobbes
1647. Elementa Philosophica de Cive
Second expanded edition with a new Preface to the Reader
1650. Answer to Sir William Davenant's Preface before Gondibert
1650. Human Nature: or The fundamental Elements of Policie
Includes first thirteen chapters of The Elements of Law, Natural and
Politic
Published without Hobbes's authorisation
1650. The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (pirated ed.)
Repackaged to include two parts:
"Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie," ch. 14–19 of
Elements, Part One (1640)
"De Corpore Politico", Elements, Part Two (1640)
1651. Philosophicall Rudiments concerning Government and Society –
English translation of De Cive[63]
1651. Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth,
Ecclesiasticall and Civil
1654. Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise
1655. De Corpore (in Latin)
1656. Elements of Philosophy, The First Section, Concerning Body –
anonymous English translation of De Corpore
1656. Six Lessons to the Professor of Mathematics
1656. The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance – reprint
of Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise, with the addition of
Bramhall's reply and Hobbes's reply to Bramahall's reply.
1657. Stigmai, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language,
Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis
1658. Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Secunda De Homine
1660. Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis explicatur
in libris Johannis Wallisii
1661. Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris
1662. Problematica Physica
English translation titled: Seven Philosophical Problems (1682)
1662. Seven Philosophical Problems, and Two Propositions of Geometry –
published posthumously
1662. Mr. Hobbes Considered in his Loyalty, Religion, Reputation, and
Manners. By way of Letter to Dr. Wallis – English autobiography
1666. De Principis & Ratiocinatione Geometrarum
1666. A Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws
of England (publ. 1681)
1668. Leviathan – Latin translation
1668. An answer to a book published by Dr. Bramhall, late bishop of
Derry; called the Catching of the leviathan. Together with an
historical narration concerning heresie, and the punishment thereof
(publ. 1682)
1671. Three Papers Presented to the Royal Society Against Dr. Wallis.
Together with Considerations on Dr. Wallis his Answer to them
1671. Rosetum Geometricum, sive Propositiones Aliquot Frustra antehac
tentatae. Cum Censura brevi Doctrinae Wallisianae de Motu
1672. Lux Mathematica. Excussa Collisionibus Johannis Wallisii
1673. English translation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey
1674. Principia et Problemata Aliquot Geometrica Antè Desperata, Nunc
breviter Explicata & Demonstrata
1678. Decameron Physiologicum: Or, Ten Dialogues of Natural Philosophy
1679. Thomae Hobbessii Malmesburiensis Vita. Authore seipso – Latin
autobiography
Translated into English in 1680
Posthumous works
1680. An Historical Narration concerning Heresie, And the Punishment
thereof
1681. Behemoth, or The Long Parliament
Written in 1668, it was unpublished at the request of the King
First pirated edition: 1679
1682. Seven Philosophical Problems (English translation of Problematica
Physica, 1662)
1682. A Garden of Geometrical Roses (English translation of Rosetum
Geometricum, 1671)
1682. Some Principles and Problems in Geometry (English translation of
Principia et Problemata, 1674)
1688. Historia Ecclesiastica Carmine Elegiaco Concinnata
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